trustworthy ancient records they were already found scattered over the countries of India, Persia, Parthia, Bactria, Media, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Asia Minor, Turkey, Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and England.

It is true, that after the flight of Muhammad to Madina his followers soon increased in Arabia, and after his death his religion began to spread rapidly over many countries, so that the Muslims could soon be numbered by thousands and millions. But no one acquainted with the history of those days could say that this rapid spread of Muhammadanism was effected solely by its spiritual power over the hearts of men; on the contrary, it is notorious that no tribe or nation has ever embraced Islam without having either been first conquered, which was generally the case, or otherwise affected by its political power. In what degree Muhammad, from the beginning of his residence in Madina, combined with the prophetic office the rank of an Arab Emir, or military chief, is evident from the fact, that during the eighteen months intervening between the Hijra and the famous battle of Badr, he had organized with his followers no less than seven marauding expeditions, intended to plunder mercantile caravans on their way to or from Mecca, and that three of these expeditions he had headed in person.¹ If we bear in mind how,

from the most ancient times, the numerous independent tribes of Arabia delighted in war and plunder, we can easily conceive, that when the said marauding expeditions, and especially the spoils and ransom after the battle of Badr, had once convinced them that the new prophet intended not only to lead them to a paradise beyond the grave, but was also the man to conduct them to the earthly paradise of victory and plunder, this latter prospect of itself had sufficient charm to induce many to join the new religion. At the death of Muhammad, only nine years after the Hijra, all Arabia had succumbed to the sword of the Muslims, and submitted, though at first very reluctantly, to their religion. The warlike tribes who had before been living in perpetual feuds between themselves, and accustomed to pillage and plunder, were then for the first time united under one head or leader, to whom they had to yield both religious and military obedience. What wonder then that, invited at once by the poverty of their home and the injunctions of a religion in keeping with the strong marauding instincts that had always characterized their race, while the neighbouring empires of Rome and Persia, weakened by a long series of destructive wars against each other, lay before them a tempting bait in their untold wealth and boundless luxury—what wonder, after all this, that we find the Arab armies, under the first energetic Khalifas, pouring forth from