having encamped within range, suffered some casualties. 'Iyad b. Ghanam, the commander, withdrew out of range, posted watching parties before the gates, and sent out parties to harry the countryside, who brought in prisoners and a plentiful supply of provisions, for the crops were ready for harvesting at the time. After five or six days of this, the commander of the town sent to 'Iyad offering to treat. 'Iyad's letter of security, like that of Khalid to Damascus, is reported

"In the name of God the Merciful and Compassionate. This is what 'Iyad b. Ghanam grants to ar-Raqqa on the day on which he enters it.

"He grants them security for themselves, their goods and their churches, which will not be destroyed or occupied if they pay the Jizya which is due from them, and do not make any new treacherous uprising: on condition also that they do not build any new church or place of worship, and do not use publicly any bell or Easter celebration or cross. God is witness and in Him is sufficiency as witness."

In Iraq similar things seem to have happened. The general population apparently made no very strenuous resistance. The Moslems, having gained a success over the Persian forces, found the cities in the neighbourhood ready to treat, and the people prepared to make alliance with them. As an example we may take the case of Hira, which we have seen was a strong centre of Christianity in pre-Islamic days. It was amongst the first places of any importance outside Arabia to fall into Moslem hands. As in the case of all these

early victories accounts are rather confused, the later accounts tending to represent as a definite Moslem Campaign directed from Medina what really began as an Arab raid across the Persian (or Roman) frontier. But in any case Muthanna, who first began the campaign in Iraq, took care to have the authority of Medina behind him, and was soon supported by the great and dreaded Moslem general, Khalid b. al-Walid. There are hints in our accounts that Hira had really been taken by Muthanna, but it is generally put down to the credit of Khalid. The latter is reported to have defeated the Persian forces which were then in the neighbourhood at a place called "the meetings of the rivers".¹ A deputation from Hira then approached him. It is reported that the Persian governor was one of them, and another bore the name of 'Abd al-Masih, which would indicate that he was a Christian. Khalid made a treaty with them on condition that they should pay 100,000 dirhams in the year; that they should be "eyes" (i.e. guides and informers) to the Moslems against the people of Persia, and that neither church nor castle of theirs should be destroyed. A similar treaty had previously been made with the people of Ullais. They were to be eyes, i.e. guides and helpers, to the Moslems against the Persians. That such a condition should have been accepted does not argue very strenuous loyalty to an empire which had so far only sustained some frontier defeats, and which might be expected to gather its strength (as it afterwards did) for a great conflict. But, indeed,