word then conveys the more general meaning of injustice or evil done towards others and at the same time implies the idea of guilt which such action involves. We find an example of this: 'And whoso committeth a sin or iniquity and afterwards layeth it on the innocent, he shall surely bear the guilt of calumny and manifest injustice.' ¹ Or again 'And they who shall affront believing men and believing women, for no fault of theirs, they shall surely bear the guilt of slander, and of a clear wrong.' ²

The word, we now see, has come to refer to any injury or injustice done to another. It is only a step further when it is used to express any wrong which causes injury to oneself. This use of the word is seen in, 'Whoso committeth wickedness committeth it against his own soul;' ³ and 'They will ask thee concerning wine and games of chance. Say: In both is great sin (ithm), and advantage also to men; but their sin (ithmahuma) is greater than their advantage.' ⁴

The use of the word is also developed in another direction. It is employed to express the taking up of a wrong attitude towards God, as already we have seen it may express the taking up of a wrong attitude to one's neighbour. We find the word thus used. 'Surely God will not pardon the union of other gods with Himself but other than this will He forgive to whom He pleaseth; and He who uniteth gods with God, hath devised a great wickedness (ithman). ' ⁵ The word may also express action contrary to God's due; hence to transgress, to be

guilty of doing what He has forbidden, or of not doing exactly what He has commanded. 'Remember God the appointed number of days, but if any haste (to depart from the valley of Mina) in two days, it shall be no crime (ithm) in him: and if he tarry longer, it shall be no crime in him who feareth God.' ¹ It is employed also to express the guilt of eating what is forbidden, 'Thou shalt see many of them hastening to iniquity (al-ithm) and malice, and to eat things forbidden.' ²

It is to be noted, however, that the simple act of eating does not involve guilt; it is the intention which makes the act wrong. Thus we read, 'But whosoever without wilful leanings to wrong (li ithmi) shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful'; ³ and again in another Sura we find the words, 'But he who shall partake of them by constraint, without lust or wilfulness, no (ithm) sin shall be upon him for God is gracious and merciful.' ⁴

A further step is taken when the command is given, 'Leave both the outside of iniquity (ithm), and the inside thereof; for they who commit iniquity (ithm), shall receive the reward of that which they shall have gained.' ⁵

Thus ithm comes finally to express any evil, or crime, or guilt, in general. Abel is represented as saying, 'I choose, that thou shouldest bear my iniquity (ithmi), and thine own iniquity (ithmaka).' ⁶